Technical reports include various types of "technical" information. For example, if you need to report why a design or piece of equipment failed, you'd write a forensic report. Or, you might have to write about a design you created. Then, you'd produce a design report or, you may need to combine these two. Many report types are classified as technical reports. You should always determine what information you need to convey and who your audience is before you start writing. To learn more about technical reports, choose any of the items below:
* Definition of a Technical Report
* Audience
* General Format
* Perspectives on Technical Reports
* Additional Resources
* Example Technical Report
Source:http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/ce-trpt/
Thursday, August 13, 2009
Wednesday, August 12, 2009
World University Ranking of Engineering Schools 2009
Rank Institution Country 2006
1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology USA
2 University of California, Berkeley USA
3 Indian Institutes of Technology India
4 Imperial College London UK
5 Stanford University USA
6 Cambridge University UK
7 Tokyo University Japan
8 National University of Singapore Singapore
9 California Institute of Technology USA
10 Carnegie Mellon University USA
11 Oxford University UK
12 ETH Zurich Switzerland
13 Delft University of Technology Netherlands
14 Tsing Hua University China
15 Nanyang Technological University Singapore
16 Melbourne University Australia
17 Hong Kong University of Science & Technology Hong Kong
18 Tokyo Institute of Technology Japan
19 New South Wales University Australia
20 Beijing University China
21 Kyoto University Japan
22 Georgia Institute of Technology USA
23 Harvard University USA
24 Australian National University Australia
25 Sydney University Australia
26 Ecole Polytechnique France
27 University of Toronto Canada
28= Cornell University USA 28= Monash University Australia
30= University of Illinois USA
30= Technion — Israel Institute of Technology Isarael
32 Technical University Munich Germany
33 Princeton University USA
34 University of California, Los Angeles USA
35 University of Texas at Austin USA
36 University of Michigan USA
37 Korea Advanced Institution of Science & Technology South Korea
38 Queensland University Australia
39 Aachen RWTH Germany
40 Purdue University USA
41 China University of Science & Technology China
41 Manchester University & Umist UK
43 Auckland University New Zeland
43 National Taiwan University Taiwan
45 Ecole Polytech Fdrale de Lausanne Switzerland
46 Technical University Denmark Denmark
47 Vienna University of Technology Austria
48 University of California, San Diego USA
48 Shanghai Jiao Tong University China
50 McGill University Canada
51 British Columbia University Canada
52 Seoul National University South Korea
53 Helsinki University of Technology Finland
53 Royal Institute of Technology Sweden
55 Osaka University Japan
56 Chalmers University of Technology Sweden
57 Yale University USA
58 Lomonosov Moscow State University Russia
59 Waterloo University Canada
60 Texas A&M University USA
61 University of Massachusetts [Amherst] USA
62 Technical University Berlin Germany
63 Catholic University of Louvain (French) Belgium
63 Polytechnic University of Milan Italy
65 University of Wisconsin USA
66 Edinburgh University UK
67 Hong Kong University Hong Kong
68 Indian Institutes of Management India
69 Eindhoven University of Technology Netherlands
70 Queensland University of Technology Australia
71 Virginia Polytechnic Institute USA
72 Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
73 Karlsruhe University Germany
74 University of Adelaide Australia
75 University of Columbia USA
76 Stuttgart University Germany
77 Nagoya University Japan
77 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute USA
79 Catholic University of Leuven (Flemish) Belgium
79 Twente University Netherlands
81 Pennsylvania University USA 82 Maryland University USA
83 Ecole Normale Suprieure, Paris France
83 Sydney Technical University Australia
85 City University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
85 Johns Hopkins University USA
87 Norwegian University Science & Technology Norway
88 RMIT University Australia
89 Birmingham University UK
90 Penn State University USA
90 Tohoku University Japan
90 Washington University USA
93 Sheffield University UK
94 University of California, Santa Barbara USA
95 Boston University USA
95 Chulalongkorn University Thailand
97 Fudan University China
98 Northwestern University USA
99 Nanjing University China
100 Pierre and Marie Curie University France
Source: 2009 World Ranking (Engineering)
1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology USA
2 University of California, Berkeley USA
3 Indian Institutes of Technology India
4 Imperial College London UK
5 Stanford University USA
6 Cambridge University UK
7 Tokyo University Japan
8 National University of Singapore Singapore
9 California Institute of Technology USA
10 Carnegie Mellon University USA
11 Oxford University UK
12 ETH Zurich Switzerland
13 Delft University of Technology Netherlands
14 Tsing Hua University China
15 Nanyang Technological University Singapore
16 Melbourne University Australia
17 Hong Kong University of Science & Technology Hong Kong
18 Tokyo Institute of Technology Japan
19 New South Wales University Australia
20 Beijing University China
21 Kyoto University Japan
22 Georgia Institute of Technology USA
23 Harvard University USA
24 Australian National University Australia
25 Sydney University Australia
26 Ecole Polytechnique France
27 University of Toronto Canada
28= Cornell University USA 28= Monash University Australia
30= University of Illinois USA
30= Technion — Israel Institute of Technology Isarael
32 Technical University Munich Germany
33 Princeton University USA
34 University of California, Los Angeles USA
35 University of Texas at Austin USA
36 University of Michigan USA
37 Korea Advanced Institution of Science & Technology South Korea
38 Queensland University Australia
39 Aachen RWTH Germany
40 Purdue University USA
41 China University of Science & Technology China
41 Manchester University & Umist UK
43 Auckland University New Zeland
43 National Taiwan University Taiwan
45 Ecole Polytech Fdrale de Lausanne Switzerland
46 Technical University Denmark Denmark
47 Vienna University of Technology Austria
48 University of California, San Diego USA
48 Shanghai Jiao Tong University China
50 McGill University Canada
51 British Columbia University Canada
52 Seoul National University South Korea
53 Helsinki University of Technology Finland
53 Royal Institute of Technology Sweden
55 Osaka University Japan
56 Chalmers University of Technology Sweden
57 Yale University USA
58 Lomonosov Moscow State University Russia
59 Waterloo University Canada
60 Texas A&M University USA
61 University of Massachusetts [Amherst] USA
62 Technical University Berlin Germany
63 Catholic University of Louvain (French) Belgium
63 Polytechnic University of Milan Italy
65 University of Wisconsin USA
66 Edinburgh University UK
67 Hong Kong University Hong Kong
68 Indian Institutes of Management India
69 Eindhoven University of Technology Netherlands
70 Queensland University of Technology Australia
71 Virginia Polytechnic Institute USA
72 Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
73 Karlsruhe University Germany
74 University of Adelaide Australia
75 University of Columbia USA
76 Stuttgart University Germany
77 Nagoya University Japan
77 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute USA
79 Catholic University of Leuven (Flemish) Belgium
79 Twente University Netherlands
81 Pennsylvania University USA 82 Maryland University USA
83 Ecole Normale Suprieure, Paris France
83 Sydney Technical University Australia
85 City University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
85 Johns Hopkins University USA
87 Norwegian University Science & Technology Norway
88 RMIT University Australia
89 Birmingham University UK
90 Penn State University USA
90 Tohoku University Japan
90 Washington University USA
93 Sheffield University UK
94 University of California, Santa Barbara USA
95 Boston University USA
95 Chulalongkorn University Thailand
97 Fudan University China
98 Northwestern University USA
99 Nanjing University China
100 Pierre and Marie Curie University France
Source: 2009 World Ranking (Engineering)
Tuesday, August 11, 2009
What is Green Engineering?
Green engineering is the process and design of products that conserve natural resources, and impact the natural environment as little as possible. The term is often applied to housing, but it can be used for automobiles, lights or any other sort of system or device that requires engineering, and incorporates sound environmental principles. Though green engineering is somewhat more expensive, many countries, recognizing the value of such work, have begun to offer tax breaks, and other incentives to those who incorporate its use.
Green engineers often have special training in the field, perhaps attending special classes to understand how materials and other components can be made in an environmentally-friendly way. For example, engineers and architects concerned with home design may learn about the latest building materials and techniques. This may include the use of solar powered appliances, especially water heaters, solar lights or windows and other design elements.
For those who are constructing a new building or home, the best time to start the green engineering process is at the very beginning. Retrofitting a building with environmentally-friendly design concepts is possible, but it is not as efficient or seamless as having those features built in initially. Therefore, it is critically important to make the desire for green design and technology known from the start.
For buildings, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification is a standard many new buildings strive to achieve. This means the building uses a substantial amount of green engineering. Though this certification is not required by any government agency, those buildings that do receive the certification are often held up as a standard for others to follow. Some owners may even offer bonuses if a building does become LEED certified.
There are a number of ratings criteria assessed for LEED certification. Some of those include the green engineering and design process, the materials used, indoor air quality and water efficiency, among others. These are each judged individually, and will include not only design elements in the building, but also elements outside the building, such as the irrigation system and other landscaping features.
In other areas, green engineering may apply to what is done with automobiles. Current design concepts used in automobiles that are considered environmentally friendly are hybrid technologies, flex fuel vehicles, and even electricity. The future could provide opportunities for fuel cell vehicles and other transportation technologies. Though the price of these vehicles, just like homes, are initially higher, some states do offer incentives. Also, the consumption of less energy means there is a chance to realize cost savings in the operation of these vehicles over time.
Source:http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-green-engineering.htm
Green engineers often have special training in the field, perhaps attending special classes to understand how materials and other components can be made in an environmentally-friendly way. For example, engineers and architects concerned with home design may learn about the latest building materials and techniques. This may include the use of solar powered appliances, especially water heaters, solar lights or windows and other design elements.
For those who are constructing a new building or home, the best time to start the green engineering process is at the very beginning. Retrofitting a building with environmentally-friendly design concepts is possible, but it is not as efficient or seamless as having those features built in initially. Therefore, it is critically important to make the desire for green design and technology known from the start.
For buildings, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification is a standard many new buildings strive to achieve. This means the building uses a substantial amount of green engineering. Though this certification is not required by any government agency, those buildings that do receive the certification are often held up as a standard for others to follow. Some owners may even offer bonuses if a building does become LEED certified.
There are a number of ratings criteria assessed for LEED certification. Some of those include the green engineering and design process, the materials used, indoor air quality and water efficiency, among others. These are each judged individually, and will include not only design elements in the building, but also elements outside the building, such as the irrigation system and other landscaping features.
In other areas, green engineering may apply to what is done with automobiles. Current design concepts used in automobiles that are considered environmentally friendly are hybrid technologies, flex fuel vehicles, and even electricity. The future could provide opportunities for fuel cell vehicles and other transportation technologies. Though the price of these vehicles, just like homes, are initially higher, some states do offer incentives. Also, the consumption of less energy means there is a chance to realize cost savings in the operation of these vehicles over time.
Source:http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-green-engineering.htm
Principle of Green Engineering
1. Engineer processes and products holistically, use systems analysis, and integrate environmental impact assessment tools.
2. Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while protecting human health and well-being.
3. Use life-cycle thinking in all engineering activities.
4. Ensure that all material and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently safe and benign as possible.
5. Minimize depletion of natural resources.
6. Strive to prevent waste.
7. Develop and apply engineering solutions, while being cognizant of local geography, aspirations, and cultures.
8. Create engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies; improve, innovate, and invent (technologies) to achieve sustainability.
9. Actively engage communities and stakeholders in development of engineering solutions.
2. Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while protecting human health and well-being.
3. Use life-cycle thinking in all engineering activities.
4. Ensure that all material and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently safe and benign as possible.
5. Minimize depletion of natural resources.
6. Strive to prevent waste.
7. Develop and apply engineering solutions, while being cognizant of local geography, aspirations, and cultures.
8. Create engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies; improve, innovate, and invent (technologies) to achieve sustainability.
9. Actively engage communities and stakeholders in development of engineering solutions.
What is Green Engineering?
Green engineering means using measurement and control techniques to create more efficient technologies and processes for environmentally sound products and systems. NI offers measurement, automation, and design tools that enable you to acquire and analyze real-world data, and then correct or fix any problems you discover. The end result is more efficient, economic technologies that are better for our planet.
The potential for green engineering applications spans almost every industry. While there are many ways to group these green applications, most fall into five categories:
* Environmental Monitoring
* Energy Storage Systems
* Power Quality Monitoring
* Solar Energy
* Wind Energy
Source:National Instrument Website
The potential for green engineering applications spans almost every industry. While there are many ways to group these green applications, most fall into five categories:
* Environmental Monitoring
* Energy Storage Systems
* Power Quality Monitoring
* Solar Energy
* Wind Energy
Source:National Instrument Website
Monday, August 10, 2009
20 Modern Engineering Marvels
Technology is taking such rapid strides forward at such a blurring pace that what is considered a marvelous novelty turns into a mundane common object within no time. To classify and bunch a set of man-made marvels from a world that is being constantly altered is a pretty tough job. Finding them is easy enough in a world filled with man-made wonders but the relevance of such a compilation will be short-lived compared with a list from the ancient world. Yet we embark on a journey across the planet and beyond to try and find out the best the world has to offer—our own creations that leave us in awe. We limit ourselves to finding the biggest, tallest or the highest as otherwise we would probably never end the journey we began. It is a journey filled with variations and grand delights in a spectacular way. So, have a fun ride…
1. CERN’s Large Hadron Collider:
With an ability to change our understanding of the world around us and give us the reasons of our own existence, CERN’s LHC is for now the most spectacular and important technological marvel modern science has created. The particle accelerator is just a couple of days away from action, and the large construction 17 miles in circumference will surely make the coming two decades the most exciting for modern physicists. It’s truly amazing creation that could answer the questions about the creation and existence of this universe itself!
2. International Space Station (ISS):
It is one thing making wonders of engineering on earth and a whole different ballgame when you need to do it outside the planet in outer space. The International Space Station (ISS) is a research facility that is a joint project among the space agencies of the United States (NASA), Russia (RKA), Japan (JAXA), Canada (CSA) and eleven European countries. When completed in 2010, it will be the largest and grandest human endeavor away from home, and to build such a massive structure in such dangerous conditions is one magnificent tribute to both human will and skill.
3. Three Gorges Dam:
Taking shape of the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world and that too by a long shot, the Three Gorges Dam in China is not just spectacular to watch but enormous in magnitude. Generating 22.5 GW of power it will supply energy amounting to 4% of China’s national needs. Creating a reservoir as large as Lake Superior, this dam will be good as a grand marvel of modern engineering by becoming the world’s largest concrete structure!
4. Petronas Twin Towers:
At 452 meters tall, the Petronas Twin Towers are magnificent and unique. While their familiarity seems at times to diminish their true aura, you only need to stand in front of the towers for one moment to realize the magnitude of the construction. For sheer intimidating height and the sophisticated look, they are a marvel of modern times.
5. Space Telescope Chandra:
Also known as the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, Chandra is an X-ray telescope orbiting the earth and sending back the most spectacular images of the cosmos that man has ever captured. The telescope moves in an orbit which makes it the furthest traveling earth-orbiting man-made object. The X-ray images offered by Chandra since its launch have redefined our notions of the cosmos and have given astronomy a whole new direction.
6. Palm Deira of Dubai:
Palm Deira is the latest of Dubai’s trilogy of man-made islands. This island will occupy all of 46.35 million square meters of land reclaimed from the Persian Gulf to make the Palm Deira the largest man-made island in the entire world. All set to be finished by the year 2013, the island will further alter the landscape of effervescent Dubai!
7. Viaduc de Millau Bridge:
Stretching higher than the Eiffel Tower, the Viaduc de Millau Bridge is a marvel of art and architecture that caught the eye of even flamboyant French President Jacques Chirac. Stretching across southern France’s Tarn River Gorge, it is 1.6 miles (2.6 kilometers) long and soaring to 1,132 feet (343 meters) at its highest point, it is the tallest bridge in the world. Built by the firm that also built the Eiffel Tower, its spectacular presence bowls over one and all!
8. Bird’s Nest:
The Bird’s Nest in the heart of Beijing needs little introduction to anyone, and it is one structure that has now become synonymous with the Olympic Games. Apart from its grand, yet unique design, the stadium is the world’s largest steel structure. No other man-made structure used up as much steel as the Olympic Stadium, with its intricate yet hypnotic design. That surely sets it apart in terms of being a one of a kind venue in the sporting world.
9. Burj-Al-Arab Hotel:
By now almost everyone knows about the Burj-Al-Arab, and if you have not heard of it or seen its picture till now, then welcome back to earth. The hotel stands at a height of 321 meters and is the tallest operational hotel in the world. While the Rosa Tower is set to soon take away that crown, it still will not diminish the unique aura of the Burj, with its unique shape and its own artificial island. This is one hotel where you can live it up in a grand style!
10. Kingda Ka Roller Coaster:
At a height of 456 feet, the Kingda Ka Roller Coaster is the tallest fun ride in the world. Located in the Six Flags Theme Park in New Jersey, the ride will take you into a different world and even before you know it, you will be plunging back towards earth at a speed of 128 mph. This heart-stopping and mind-numbing ride is not just the tallest in the world but also the most exhilarating. This is a modern marvel that is just for fun and adrenaline, and that makes it our personal favorite!
11. Rungnado May Day Stadium:
Located in Pyongyang, North Korea, the May Day stadium is the largest in the world and has seen some pretty big crowds. The May Day stadium has 150,000 seats and a total floor space of more than 207,000 square meters. The inner stadium floor area covers 25,000 square meters, including 14,000 square meters of which its athletic field is artificially made and 8,300 square meters of lawn. Vertical axis of stadium is 450 meters and horizontal axis 350 meters. Those are just a few numbers from this humongous stage for sporting extravaganza!
12. Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge:
The Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge is the longest suspension bridge in the world and is a spectacular visual delight. It apparently took 2 million workers 10 years to construct the bridge, 181,000 tons of steel and 1.4 million cubic meters of concrete. The four-mile bridge links the island of Awaji and the mainland city of Kobe. This is probably one man-made marvel that even the Japanese are proud about and look at in awe!
13. Lake Mead:
Lake Mead is one of my own personal favorites not just because it is such a spectacular human creation among nature’s brilliant creations, but it also brings in the aura of the Hoover Dam into the list. When it was completed, the Hoover Dam was the largest concrete structure in the world, and also the largest power-producing entity. With time all that might have gone, but the artificial lake it creates among the gorgeous Grand Canyons-Lake Mead-is still the world’s largest man-made reservoir. Simply spectacular!
14. Project Genesis:
When finished in 2009, Royal Caribbean’s Project Genesis luxury cruise ship will be the largest cruise ship the world has ever known. This modern-day luxury-on-ocean will end up costing a cool $1.24 billion to make. It will measure 1,180 feet long and carry 5,400 passengers. When ready, the ship would have a central park, luxury hotels, restaurants, public spaces, picnic spots and bars. Yes, it is like a little city of its own!
15. Hangzhou Bay Bridge:
There is something about bridges that we just cannot get enough of. It is just the scientific knowledge and the engineering skill involved in building them that makes them stand out as technical pieces of art. The Hangzhou Bay Bridge is the longest road bridge in the world and another Chinese marvel that made it to our list. The £840 million Bridge, measuring 36km, spans Hangzhou Bay to link China’s financial hub and the port city of Ningbo to the south. The fact that it is anchored in waters that are 60 meters deep in places and yet is so solid and spectacular makes it a feat of accomplishment indeed!
16. Channel Tunnel:
The Channel Tunnel, more popularly known as the Eurotunnel, is the longest under-sea rail tunnel in the world in terms of length of the tunnel under the sea. Connecting England and France, it starts out at Kent in England and finishes at Coquelles near Calais in northern France. Creating a bridge over water is hard enough but to plow under the sea to create a rail tunnel! This is one ride that you will never forget.
17. Singapore Flyer:
These big giant wheels that go round and round giving you a spectacular view of the city are so cool, and the one in London is obviously pretty famous. But there is plenty of hard work and engineering skill behind the apparent simplicity. The Singapore Flyer is the world’s largest Ferris wheel and reaches 42 stories high, it comprises of a 150-metre high wheel built over a three-story terminal building, thus giving it a total height of 165 meters. It not only gives you a view of Singapore in totality but parts of Malaysia and Indonesia as well… Awesome!
18. Pan STARRS-1:
Built at Manoa’s Institute for Astronomy in Honolulu at the University of Hawaii, the largest digital camera has been installed on the Pan STARRS-1 telescope on Haleskala, Maui. This digital wonder along with the telescope will form one of the most powerful observatories on the planet and will monitor the cosmos constantly.
19. MareNostrum:
It is not often that science and religion get along well, and that makes the MareNostrum all the more special. MareNostrum is the most powerful supercomputer in Europe and while Europe does not cover the world, it is the only one where you will find a church. The supercomputer consists of 2560 JS21 blade computing nodes, each with 2 dual-core IBM 64-bit PowerPC 970MP processors running at 2.3 GHz for 10240 CPUs. All this in a chapel, and the ironic part: it is used for human genome research!
20. San Alfonso Del Mar:
After taking a trip across the planet in search of the mind-boggling modern technological wonders, it is better everyone takes a cool dip on our final spot, and that is exactly why we reserved this one final spot for San Alfonso Del Mar in Chile. This amazing resort in the beautiful South American country sports the world’s largest swimming pool, and when I say large, I mean it. The San Alfonso pool is 1km in length and contains an incredible 250,000 cubic meters of water. The technology used to create the crystal clear water that is transparent to a depth of 35 meters is the real technological aspect of this pool, and an exclusive secret for now. The pool, spread over 8 hectares, is surely good enough for all those who came along on this fabulous journey!
Thursday, August 6, 2009
Petroleum Production Engineering Fundamentals
Introduction
This short article will provide basic information about petroleum production engineering and the process that have been involved. Complete oil and gas production system consists of reservoir, well, flow line, separators pump and transportation pipeline. Figure below will clearly shows the process of the petroleum production from reservoir to the transportation pipeline.
This short article will provide basic information about petroleum production engineering and the process that have been involved. Complete oil and gas production system consists of reservoir, well, flow line, separators pump and transportation pipeline. Figure below will clearly shows the process of the petroleum production from reservoir to the transportation pipeline.
The reservoir supplies well bore with crude oil or gas, the well will provide a path to the production fluid to flow from the bottom hole to surface and offers a means to control the fluid production rate, and the flow line leads the produced fluid to separators. The separators will separate the water and gas from the crude oil. Pumps and compressors will use to transport oil and gas through pipeline to the shore for refinery.
Wednesday, August 5, 2009
Abbreviations in Air Conditioning Works
Abbreviations
There are some adding abbreviations that normally used in air conditioning work in addition to the standard that have been use in international standards (S.I):
ahu : Air-Handling Unit
swg : Static water gauge
ach : Air changes (room volumes) per hour
db : dry bulb temperature
wb : wet bulb temperature
dp : dew point temperature
rh : relative humidity
kg/kg : kilogram water vapour per kilogram dry air (absolute moisture content)
TH : Total Heat
SH : Sensible Heat
LH : Latent Heat
SHR : Sensible Heat Ratio
ON OFF: The condition of air or water entering or leaving a coil or heat exchanger
TR: Tons of refrigeration capacity
TRE: Tons of refrigeration capacity extracted
TRR: Tons of refrigeration rejected (at final cooler)
HP: High Pressure (refrigerant)
LH: Low Pressure (refrigerant)
DX: Direct expansion cooling
There are some adding abbreviations that normally used in air conditioning work in addition to the standard that have been use in international standards (S.I):
ahu : Air-Handling Unit
swg : Static water gauge
ach : Air changes (room volumes) per hour
db : dry bulb temperature
wb : wet bulb temperature
dp : dew point temperature
rh : relative humidity
kg/kg : kilogram water vapour per kilogram dry air (absolute moisture content)
TH : Total Heat
SH : Sensible Heat
LH : Latent Heat
SHR : Sensible Heat Ratio
ON OFF: The condition of air or water entering or leaving a coil or heat exchanger
TR: Tons of refrigeration capacity
TRE: Tons of refrigeration capacity extracted
TRR: Tons of refrigeration rejected (at final cooler)
HP: High Pressure (refrigerant)
LH: Low Pressure (refrigerant)
DX: Direct expansion cooling
Friday, July 31, 2009
Components of Nuclear Power Plant – Reactor Vessel
A nuclear reactor consists of various parts which carry out different functions related to heat generation by “burning” of nuclear fuel, but a housing is needed to contain all these parts and act as a covering for all these paraphernalia
Introduction
Just imagine if your beautiful body did not have the cover of the skin, and when you met any individual you could simply see through their various organs and into their "dirty" workings. This would certainly be not a very pleasing sight and would take out the very charm of human personality. This is not much different in the case of nuclear reactors as well. I cannot imagine going to a nuclear power plant just to find that the reactor core, fuel rods, control rods etc are all lying bare bones without any proper cover of enclosure. Hence the outside component of nuclear power plant is very important and is known as the reactor vessel.
Reactor Vessel
Vessels are often used to cook food, and though a nuclear reactor may not be cooking food directly for you, it certainly provides a source of an equally valuable food for the society: electrical energy. But apart from the cooking business there are a lot of functions which a nuclear reactor vessel has to perform and some of these are as follows.
It acts to enclose the various parts inside the reactor including the core, shield, reflector etc.
The coolant needs a passage to flow through the reactor so that it can be used to transfer the heat to the working fluid or the turbine directly, as the case may be, and this passage is provided by the reactor vessel.
To withstand the high pressure with exists inside the reactor and could be of the order of 200 kgf/cm2, to provide a safe working environment for all concerned.
Control of the nuclear reaction is absolutely necessary and this is done with the help of control rods. The reactor vessel provides a place to insert these control rods in the nuclear reactor and move them in or out of the reactor core depending on the requirements of power.
The Pressure Vessel
Although the reactor vessel has been compared to a cookery vessel in the common usage of the term, technically speaking it is more of a pressure vessel. There are legal implications associated with defining a pressure vessel and these vary with the country in which it is being used or manufactured. Different countries have different authorities which govern rules and regulations regarding pressure vessels and in the US this is done by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The material used for the construction of a nuclear vessel is usually steel which would be expected as the material has to be very strong and resilient.
Pressure vessels of all kinds are subject to various tests to check for their strength against laid down standards which is very important to ensure safety of these vessels. This is moreso important in the case of nuclear reactor vessels which house source of intense raditaions and heat energy.
Hence we see that though a nuclear reactor vessel may not be performing any useful function direcly in the generation of electrical energy, it acts to hold together all major components of the power plant.
source:http://www.brighthub.com/
Introduction
Just imagine if your beautiful body did not have the cover of the skin, and when you met any individual you could simply see through their various organs and into their "dirty" workings. This would certainly be not a very pleasing sight and would take out the very charm of human personality. This is not much different in the case of nuclear reactors as well. I cannot imagine going to a nuclear power plant just to find that the reactor core, fuel rods, control rods etc are all lying bare bones without any proper cover of enclosure. Hence the outside component of nuclear power plant is very important and is known as the reactor vessel.
Reactor Vessel
Vessels are often used to cook food, and though a nuclear reactor may not be cooking food directly for you, it certainly provides a source of an equally valuable food for the society: electrical energy. But apart from the cooking business there are a lot of functions which a nuclear reactor vessel has to perform and some of these are as follows.
It acts to enclose the various parts inside the reactor including the core, shield, reflector etc.
The coolant needs a passage to flow through the reactor so that it can be used to transfer the heat to the working fluid or the turbine directly, as the case may be, and this passage is provided by the reactor vessel.
To withstand the high pressure with exists inside the reactor and could be of the order of 200 kgf/cm2, to provide a safe working environment for all concerned.
Control of the nuclear reaction is absolutely necessary and this is done with the help of control rods. The reactor vessel provides a place to insert these control rods in the nuclear reactor and move them in or out of the reactor core depending on the requirements of power.
The Pressure Vessel
Although the reactor vessel has been compared to a cookery vessel in the common usage of the term, technically speaking it is more of a pressure vessel. There are legal implications associated with defining a pressure vessel and these vary with the country in which it is being used or manufactured. Different countries have different authorities which govern rules and regulations regarding pressure vessels and in the US this is done by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The material used for the construction of a nuclear vessel is usually steel which would be expected as the material has to be very strong and resilient.
Pressure vessels of all kinds are subject to various tests to check for their strength against laid down standards which is very important to ensure safety of these vessels. This is moreso important in the case of nuclear reactor vessels which house source of intense raditaions and heat energy.
Hence we see that though a nuclear reactor vessel may not be performing any useful function direcly in the generation of electrical energy, it acts to hold together all major components of the power plant.
source:http://www.brighthub.com/
Thursday, July 30, 2009
How Does a Nuclear Power Plant Work?
Today nuclear power plants have become major source of electricity for us. Externally the nuclear power plant looks like a dome, but it is interesting to know how a nuclear power plant works, what are the types of materials and equipment used, and so on. So just read this article to gain invaluable insight into the interesting world of the industry where power is extracted from the atomic level of matter.
Introduction
Whenever the term nuclear power plant is mentioned, it usually brings images of the Chernobyl disaster into mind, or related images of the nuclear technology triggered device which destroyed 2 cities of Japan during the Second World War. I agree that these incidents were very unfortunate and should have never happened in the first place, but believe me when I say that nuclear power is quite safe. Though nuclear energy has devastating capabilities such incidents or accidents mainly happen due to human errors of carelessness or prejudice. Otherwise nuclear technology is as safe as any other technology used to generate electricity and possibly much more effective in several situations. You will appreciate this viewpoint better once you know how does a nuclear power plant work?
The Energy Mass Ratio
In order to give you an idea about the scale of fuel quantities involved in a nuclear power station vis-à-vis traditional power stations, I ask you to imagine that around a pound of nuclear fuel like say Uranium gives the energy equivalent to burning a million gallons of gasoline. This should not come as a surprise since we have already learned that the energy released in a nuclear reaction is the equivalent of the mass change which takes place during the process. It is therefore huge compared to energy which is released as a result of combustion and related chemical reactions during traditional fuel burning.
How Does it All Work?
It is all very well to hear that tremendous energy lies within atomic particles, which is converted into electrical energy in a nuclear power plant. The million dollar question is- how is it achieved?
Well the nuclear energy isn’t converted directly into electricity but the heat released during the fission reaction is used to convert water into steam which in turn runs a turbine. The turbine turns the alternator which produces electricity to be fed into the power grid.
Of course the overall process is not as simple as it seems and there are several types of nuclear power plants which are classified according to different parameters, which will be discussed in separate articles on this topic.
One concept which must be well understood in context of nuclear power plants is the critical mass of the fuel used. We know that fission occurs whenever an atom splits into two or more components. Let us take the case of U 235 which splits to give 2-3 neutrons in the process which in turn strike other atoms and cause further splitting. This chain can only be sustained if the mass of U 235 is of a certain minimum value known as the critical mass. Below this critical value the reaction would ultimately die out, while if the critical value is exceeded it may result in the likes of an atomic bomb.
The above statement might have sent jitters down your spine, but just relax. Technology is quite advanced these days and so nuclear power plants simply do not blow up every other day as if they were nuclear bombs . The very few incidents that have occurred to date were mainly caused by carelessness.
Source:http://www.brighthub.com
Introduction
Whenever the term nuclear power plant is mentioned, it usually brings images of the Chernobyl disaster into mind, or related images of the nuclear technology triggered device which destroyed 2 cities of Japan during the Second World War. I agree that these incidents were very unfortunate and should have never happened in the first place, but believe me when I say that nuclear power is quite safe. Though nuclear energy has devastating capabilities such incidents or accidents mainly happen due to human errors of carelessness or prejudice. Otherwise nuclear technology is as safe as any other technology used to generate electricity and possibly much more effective in several situations. You will appreciate this viewpoint better once you know how does a nuclear power plant work?
The Energy Mass Ratio
In order to give you an idea about the scale of fuel quantities involved in a nuclear power station vis-à-vis traditional power stations, I ask you to imagine that around a pound of nuclear fuel like say Uranium gives the energy equivalent to burning a million gallons of gasoline. This should not come as a surprise since we have already learned that the energy released in a nuclear reaction is the equivalent of the mass change which takes place during the process. It is therefore huge compared to energy which is released as a result of combustion and related chemical reactions during traditional fuel burning.
How Does it All Work?
It is all very well to hear that tremendous energy lies within atomic particles, which is converted into electrical energy in a nuclear power plant. The million dollar question is- how is it achieved?
Well the nuclear energy isn’t converted directly into electricity but the heat released during the fission reaction is used to convert water into steam which in turn runs a turbine. The turbine turns the alternator which produces electricity to be fed into the power grid.
Of course the overall process is not as simple as it seems and there are several types of nuclear power plants which are classified according to different parameters, which will be discussed in separate articles on this topic.
One concept which must be well understood in context of nuclear power plants is the critical mass of the fuel used. We know that fission occurs whenever an atom splits into two or more components. Let us take the case of U 235 which splits to give 2-3 neutrons in the process which in turn strike other atoms and cause further splitting. This chain can only be sustained if the mass of U 235 is of a certain minimum value known as the critical mass. Below this critical value the reaction would ultimately die out, while if the critical value is exceeded it may result in the likes of an atomic bomb.
The above statement might have sent jitters down your spine, but just relax. Technology is quite advanced these days and so nuclear power plants simply do not blow up every other day as if they were nuclear bombs . The very few incidents that have occurred to date were mainly caused by carelessness.
Source:http://www.brighthub.com
Wednesday, July 29, 2009
How Much Do Engineers Earn?
Average starting salary offers vary by branch of engineering and by degree. For example, in 2006, the highest starting salary offers were in the following specialties: aerospace, agricultural, architectural, bioengineering and biomedical. The amount of the offer increased based on degree level attained.
Median annual earnings for several branches of engineering (U.S., 2006)
Electrical: $75,930
Civil: $68,600
Mechanical: $69,850
Computer Hardware: $88,470
Environmental: $69,940
Nuclear: $90,220
Biomedical: $73,930
source: http://careerplanning.about.com/od/occupations/p/engineer.htm
Median annual earnings for several branches of engineering (U.S., 2006)
Electrical: $75,930
Civil: $68,600
Mechanical: $69,850
Computer Hardware: $88,470
Environmental: $69,940
Nuclear: $90,220
Biomedical: $73,930
source: http://careerplanning.about.com/od/occupations/p/engineer.htm
Tuesday, July 28, 2009
AGA 7 Calculation
AGA 7 takes a flowing volume, rate or flowing conditions and calculates base volume, base volume flow rate or volume correction factor. It requires flowing and base pressure, temperature and compressibility. Compressibility is calculated by your favourite equation of state, such as AGA 8.The algorithm for the calculation is extremely straightforward. It is really just the application of the real gas law to the measured volume.
For Flowing Volume:
Pf * Vf = Zf * n * R * Tf
so Vf = Zf * n * R * Tf / Pf
For Base Volume:
Pb * Vb = Zb * n * R * Tb
so Vb = Zb * n * R * Tb / Pb
Dividing the equations, we get
Vb/Vf = (Zb * n * R * Tb / Pb )/( Zf * n * R * Tf / Pf)
so Vb= Vf *(Zb * n * R * Tb * Pf) / ( Zf * n * R * Tf * Pb)
Changing the pressure and temperature doesn't change the number of moles, and R is a constant, so:
Vb= Vf *(Zb * Tb * Pf) / ( Zf * Tf * Pb)
S is defined as Zb / Zf
Fpm is defined as Pf / 101.56 kPa, or Pf / 14.73 PSIF
pb is defined as 101.56 kPa / Pb, or 14.73 PSI / Pb
Ftm is defined as 288.7056 Deg Kelvin / Tf, or 519.67 Deg. Rankin / Tf
Ftb is defined as Tb / 288.7056 Deg Kelvin, or Tb / 519.67 Deg. Rankin
So Fpm * Fpb = Pf / Pb
and Ftm * Ftb = Tb / Tf
So Vb = Vf * Fpm * Fpb* Ftm * Ftb * S
Calculate Fpm = Pf / 101.56 kPa (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate Fpb = 101.56/Pb
Calculate Ftm = (15.55556 + 273.15)/Tf Deg. K (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate Ftb = Tb / (15.55556 + 273.15) Deg. K (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate S = Zb / Zf = Fpv2
Calculate BMV (base multiplier value) = Fpm * Fpb * Ftm * Ftb * S
Apply meter factor to BMV (Note: this is often done to the actual volume prior to using AGA 7.)
Calculate base volume Vb = Vf * BMV / 1000 (Converts M3 to E3M3, or Ft3 to MSCF)
Source: http://www.squinch.org/
For Flowing Volume:
Pf * Vf = Zf * n * R * Tf
so Vf = Zf * n * R * Tf / Pf
For Base Volume:
Pb * Vb = Zb * n * R * Tb
so Vb = Zb * n * R * Tb / Pb
Dividing the equations, we get
Vb/Vf = (Zb * n * R * Tb / Pb )/( Zf * n * R * Tf / Pf)
so Vb= Vf *(Zb * n * R * Tb * Pf) / ( Zf * n * R * Tf * Pb)
Changing the pressure and temperature doesn't change the number of moles, and R is a constant, so:
Vb= Vf *(Zb * Tb * Pf) / ( Zf * Tf * Pb)
S is defined as Zb / Zf
Fpm is defined as Pf / 101.56 kPa, or Pf / 14.73 PSIF
pb is defined as 101.56 kPa / Pb, or 14.73 PSI / Pb
Ftm is defined as 288.7056 Deg Kelvin / Tf, or 519.67 Deg. Rankin / Tf
Ftb is defined as Tb / 288.7056 Deg Kelvin, or Tb / 519.67 Deg. Rankin
So Fpm * Fpb = Pf / Pb
and Ftm * Ftb = Tb / Tf
So Vb = Vf * Fpm * Fpb* Ftm * Ftb * S
Calculate Fpm = Pf / 101.56 kPa (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate Fpb = 101.56/Pb
Calculate Ftm = (15.55556 + 273.15)/Tf Deg. K (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate Ftb = Tb / (15.55556 + 273.15) Deg. K (US base conditions, defined by AGA 7 spec)
Calculate S = Zb / Zf = Fpv2
Calculate BMV (base multiplier value) = Fpm * Fpb * Ftm * Ftb * S
Apply meter factor to BMV (Note: this is often done to the actual volume prior to using AGA 7.)
Calculate base volume Vb = Vf * BMV / 1000 (Converts M3 to E3M3, or Ft3 to MSCF)
Source: http://www.squinch.org/
What is Engineering?
Engineering is the science, discipline, art and profession of acquiring and applying technical, scientific and mathematical knowledge to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that safely realize a desired objective or inventions.
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET) has defined engineering as follows:
“The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.”
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as European Engineer, Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology.
Mainly engineering can be broken down to several branches and disciplines. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main Branches of Engineering are categorized as follows:
Aerospace Engineering - The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics.
Chemical Engineering - The exploitation of chemical principles in order to carry out large scale chemical processing, as well as designing new speciality materials and fuels.
Civil Engineering - The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges and buildings.
Electrical Engineering - The design of electrical systems, such as transformers, as well as electronic goods.
Mechanical Engineering - The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, powertrains, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment.
With the rapid advancement of Technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as Computer Engineering, Software Engineering, Nanotechnology, Tribology, Molecular engineering, Mechatronics etc.
These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering. A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or prominent enough to warrant classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field.
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Source: Wikipedia
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET) has defined engineering as follows:
“The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.”
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as European Engineer, Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology.
Mainly engineering can be broken down to several branches and disciplines. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main Branches of Engineering are categorized as follows:
Aerospace Engineering - The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics.
Chemical Engineering - The exploitation of chemical principles in order to carry out large scale chemical processing, as well as designing new speciality materials and fuels.
Civil Engineering - The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges and buildings.
Electrical Engineering - The design of electrical systems, such as transformers, as well as electronic goods.
Mechanical Engineering - The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, powertrains, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment.
With the rapid advancement of Technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as Computer Engineering, Software Engineering, Nanotechnology, Tribology, Molecular engineering, Mechatronics etc.
These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering. A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or prominent enough to warrant classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field.
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Source: Wikipedia
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